100 Years Ago - Jerusalem and Russia

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/register/the-capture-of-jerusalem-br6xl8wc0

december 11, 1917

The Capture of Jerusalem

The deliverance of Jerusalem, though its influence on the war may be relatively remote, must remain for all time a memorable event in the history of Christendom. Wherever the Gospel has been preached it has been in all ages the most sacred spot upon earth to countless millions. There the Divine Author of their faith taught the great truths which are the wellspring of all that is holiest, and there He suffered and died. For well-nigh 13 centuries it has remained, with relatively brief intervals, in Musulman hands, and for 400 years Turkish Sultans have been its lords. To Moslem, too, it is a holy place, though the tradition of its sanctity is no longer a living force among them in India and in the outer world. For the Jews, whatever may be the land of their exile, its memories are imperishable. To them it has always remained their providential home and the earthly centre of their ancient religion.

To-day General Allenby makes his entry into the city, and his entry means that the yoke of the Turk is broken for ever. The Sultan will dominate the Holy Places no more; the scattered Jews will have a prospect of returning as a free people to their national home, and a new order will be established, founded upon the ideals of righteousness and of justice.
Whilst the Germans have wantonly destroyed the noblest of Christian churches on the false plea of military necessity, the British General has delayed his operations to save the sacred places in and about Jerusalem from accidental hurt. That is a warrant of the care which will certainly be taken to safeguard the rights and to respect the susceptibilities of every faith.
The great Mosque of Omar and the other sites most intimately associated with the traditions of Islam will, doubtless, be safeguarded and left in Moslem keeping, and the priests and ministers of all communions who are not alien enemies may confidently rely upon the countenance of the conquerors.
The fall of Jerusalem, whatever its military importance, marks the latest stage in a brilliant campaign. It is a sign that the tyranny of the Turk is doomed and that the dawn of a new freedom is rising over his dominions. To all whom he oppresses — Greeks, Armenians, Arabs, Jews and Syrians — it is an augury of deliverance.

Розсмикані думки №№

Мій тезко дяк Кураєв останнім часом досить таки наполегливо згадує про те, що російська православна церква швидко запозичає не найкращі риси старого католицизму - як-от жорстка єрархія, думка про непогрішимість предстоятеля і таке інше. Але мені раптом подумалося, що від старого (і то дуже старого) католицизму дещо запозичила і інша, державна релігія східного сусіди - поганство, іноді недоброзичливо номіноване "побєдобєсієм". Я власне про ідею, з боротьби з якою почався той всесвітньоісторично-значимий рух, чиє півтисячоліття відзначається в цьому році.
Угу, шановний читачу. Ти ерудований та метикуватий, тож зрозумів, що мова йде про а) індульгенції та б) Реформацію.
Бо Лютер прибив (чи може й ні, є різні думки) свої тези на двері церкви п'ятсот років тому, бо хотів обговорити саме своє занепокоєння проблемою продажу індульгенцій. Власне, з теоретичної точки зору воно було набагато складніше ніж та картинка в підручнику історіх середніх віків для 6 класу середньої школи (ну чи в Дитячій енциклопедії) - в свою чергу творче переосмислення гравюр з протестантських памфлетів часів Реформації, до речі: розбійник купує в ченця індульгенцію на майбутні гріхи, і тут же грабує монаха, бо вже має цей гріх відпущеним. Хоча треба сказати, що реальні папські емісари, збираючи гроші на нанішній Собор Св Петра у Ватікані, у своїх помовах до простого люду спрощували ситуацію до дуже близької ідеї - заплати, і можеш не турбуватися про свої гріхи (чи своїх рідних - можна було індульгенції купувати й за померлих)
Варто згадати, що "простому люду" (категорія не є соціальною, скоріше інтелектуальною в даному конкретному дописі - ба навіть снобською) й досі притаманне саме таки сприяття церковних ритуалів. Поставив свічку - гріхів позбувся. Але це все в дужках, a little aside так би мовити.
Так от. Насправді думка за офіційною церковною доктриною щодо індульгенцій була складнішою. Після того, як богослови додумалися до того, що окрім раю та пекла має бути ще чистилище, де перебувають ті, хто не заслужив на рай через свої гріхи, і мають "відмотати строк" щоб увійти до раю "з чистою совістю" та спокутими гріхами, треба було вирішити, що ж з цим робити, чи можна якось полегшити - зменшити чи скоротити - страждання грішників у чистилищі. Тут, до речі, варто сказати, що грішниками відчували себе всі. Всі абсолютно - бо кожен, чесний сам із собою, не може не знати про всі власні гріхи, малі й великі - "дією, словом чи думкою", що роблять його недостойним предстати перед очі Господа що є Абсолютне Добро. Септуагінта в книзі Маккавеїв (першій здається, але точно не скажу) згадує, що можна молитися за померлих (масоретський текст не включає в себе цих книг, тож протестанти не вважають його канонічним, а разом з тим і молитви за померлих - але то таке). Але можна (як думали богослови) скоротити майбутній строк і іншим чином - добрі діла мають йти "в зачот" проти справ не дуже добрих.
О! Гарна думка. І далі пішов її логічний розвиток. Добрі справи робити довго й клопітно - годувати голодних, навідуватися до в'язнів і так далі, що там ще рекомендував Ісус? Можна допомогти - монетарно, ага - організації, що саме як раз і займається всім оцим - бо ж сама є Тілом Христовим на землі. Це церква тобто. Як інституція, а не будівля. Хоча й на будівлю гроші не завадять. І тоді церква своєю владою може забезпечити полегшення мук у чистилищі. Тут треба зразу сказати, що офіційно все це стосувалося лише гріхів звичайних, не смертних, за які нерозкаяному грішникові була прямісінька дорога до пекла (а перелік смертних гріхів, як кому цікаво, є у "Тілі Уленшпігелі", наприклад, звідки більша частина ботаніків колись набиралася знань про і католицьку церкву, і про Реформацію, і про війну в Нідерландах - "Капітана Алатрісте" тоді ще на полицях книгарень не було)
Виникало питання, а як саме, за рахунок чого може Церква давати таке послаблення? І богослови цілком логічно прийшли до ось якого висновку. Церква має нескінченну кількість Божественної благодаті, заробленої в перші віки існування Церкви першими християнськими мучениками та праведниками. І от саме цією благодаттю вона й ділиться із своїми заблудшими дітьми - і саме нею полегшує/скорочує страждання в чистилищі.
Власне, Лютер виступив саме проти цього. На його думку, ніякі наші зусилля не можуть зробити нас достатньо чистими перед лицем Господа, і потрапити до раю душа може лише отримавши милість Господню безпосередньо від Бога, незаслужену, подаровану від Божої любови. Індульгенції ж (а надто у вульгаризованому їх розумінні) були як мінімум нічого не варті, а то й згубні, бо вводили людей у велику оману і у гріх, і віддалювали від Бога...
Далі можна багато всякого цікавого розказувати - але ця лютерова ідея призвела до створення нового - сучасного - світу (через багато кроків - і до речі, до оновлення і католицької церкви). Але повернемося до наших баранів. Чи орків.
У західній літературі, коли розмірковується про відмінність Росії як цивілізації від Заходу (як цивілілзації ж), часто згадується, що Росія не пройшла крізь Реформацію (що до речі невірно щодо України - Реформація в Республіці Обох Народів йшла дуже активно й цікаво - і це не торкаючись пізнішого великого успіху протестантських церков на наших теренах)
Але повертаючись до офіційного державного поганства - схоже що непройдена Реформація дала несподіваний метастаз. Із висловлювань можновладців східного сусіди можна зробити висновок, що там свідомо чи підсвідомо вважається, що ті, хто загинув воюючи проти Німеччини (і всіх, поти кого сталінська верхівка наказувала воювати) своєю пожертвою створили оте саме джерело благодаті, з якого тепер Росії відпускаються всі гріхи минулі і майбутні. Іноді цей догмат практично висловлюється мало не дослівно. Як і півтисячоліття тому, "прості люди" в це щиро вірять, а понтіфекс максимус і його аколити вміло користуються цим народним забобоном. От тільки з аналогом собору Св Петра якось напружено. Все більше яхти та приватні палаци. Але Лютер прийде й туди.

100 Years Ago - Caporetto

AUSTRIAN BRIDGE ON THE OLD PIAVE

 The last stand of a group of Italian gunners

BRITISH TROOPS POSTED IN A WATERCOURSE ON THE ITALIAN FRONT

ITALIANS TAKING UP POSITIONS ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE PIAVE

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-german-blow-at-italy-qs9zrjsnj?utm_source=newsletter&utm_campaign=newsletter_118&utm_medium=email&utm_content=118_December%2006,%202017&CMP=TNLEmail_118918_2619713_118

The German blow at Italy

Should Germany gain military successes on the Isonzo, as she is doing, she may be able to revive the moral of the Austrian Army and the spirits of the people of Vienna and Budapest

October 27, 1917

The news from all other theatres of war is eclipsed by the reports which are arriving from Italy. On the Middle and Upper Isonzo the Germans and Austrians have massed huge fresh forces and have compelled the Italians to retire on a front of between twenty-five and thirty miles. The enemy claim to have taken 30,000 prisoners, “of whom 700 are officers”, and more than 300 guns, “including many heavy guns”.
The dispatches we publish today contain grave warnings. The Germans have not hitherto taken part in the operations on the Italian front, but our Military Correspondent stated in an article published yesterday that they have now formed a 14th Army for this special purpose, and have placed in it “a number of good divisions of the Active Army”. The correspondents on the Isonzo say that the enemy seem to have transferred “the whole of their Russian front here,” and though the statement need not be taken very literally, it is clear that the inactivity of the Russian Army is the true cause of the Austro-German advance.

We are told quite frankly that the enemy aim at far more than the recovery of the ground won from Austria on the Isonzo. They intend to invade the Italian plains, if they can, and already they claim to be across the italian frontier “at many points”. They have struck with shrewd insight into the military situation. The Italians have never been able to accomplish on the Middle Isonzo advances corresponding to their brilliant successes farther south. They therefore did not hold their line above Tolmino with a strength such as they have maintained on the Carso and beyond Gorizia. The enemy evidently chose to attack on the Middle Isonzo because victory there might compel an Italian retirement in the Gorizia sector, and still more because it offered the shortest way to the plains.
The reasons which have led the Germans to launch this swift blow are presumably both military and political. The military possibilities are obvious. The political reasons are twofold, and relate both to Italy and to Austria. The Austrian Army on the Italian front has never been under direct German control, and Germany may have had reasons to think a continuance of its autonomy undesirable. The civil population in Austria is exceedingly dispirited, and the internal economic conditions are bad. Should Germany gain military successes on the Isonzo, as she is doing, she may be able to revive the moral of the Austrian Army and the spirits of the people of Vienna and Budapest.
With regard to Italy, the German object doubtless is to intensify and deepen the internal political difference which, by a coincidence, led to the defeat of the Italian Ministry on Thursday. In this respect German calculations are unquestionably at fault, as is so often the case. The opposition to Signor Boselli’s Government appears to be due to a widespread conviction that war problems have not been handled with sufficient firmness and promptitude. The predominant desire of the critics of Signor Boselli is to create a more vigorous War Government The menace of invasion will probably strengthen their aspirations, with results which Germany is not likely to appreciate. She thought to weaken Italy, but she will doubtless quickly find that her attack has had the reverse effect.

The immediate military possibilities of the Austro-German offensive are of a character which Allies must instantly take into account. From Saga to a point just north of Canale, the Italians have withdrawn behind their own frontier, and they may therefore be compelled to sacrifice their brilliant gains on the Great Bainsizza plateau. They are being pressed on the slopes of Monte San Gabriele, and their positions beyond Gorizia may eventually be affected.
The weight of the thrust against General Cadorna is evidently heavy, but he is stanch of heart and deft of hand. He met and countered in the Trentino last year a peril which, at first, seemed almost equally menacing. We must await further developments before definitely measuring the full significance of the new stroke, but it must be said without delay that an extensive invasion of Italy at this juncture would affect the whole Allied cause. In that spirit measures must be taken should the necessity arise. We are entering another phase of violent fluctuations in the war, not all of which are to the enemy’s advantage.

100 Years Ago - Interview with Trotsky

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/past-six-days/2017-12-06/register/an-interview-with-trotsky-sz7ksgkv5


From our Special Correspondent, Petrograd, Dec 2.
Today I had an interesting conversation with the People’s Commissioner for Foreign Affairs. Trotsky, who had previously met me in Bulgaria, began the conversation by stating that negotiations for an armistice would begin this evening. The Government desired, not a separate peace, but a general peace. On this point he dwelt strongly. At first, he said, there would be not an armistice but a suspension of hostilities, during which the Russian Army would maintain a combative attitude.
In reply to my question how he expected the Allies to associate themselves so soon with the negotiations, in consequence of the pressure of the masses on the Governments, he said: “There will be three stages in the pour-parlers: One, suspension of hostilities; two, armistice; three, peace negotiations. The Allies can join when they like. The first and second stages would be temporary and provisional, then would begin the negotiations for a general peace.”

He maintained with great emphasis that the Government has no idea whatever of a separate peace, but of a general peace negotiated in concert with the Allies. He hoped that during the interval afforded by these preliminary proceedings the various peoples would react on their Governments to dispose them to take part in the negotiations.
In reply to my observation that the Government by its procedure has left little time for the development of such a movement on the part of the various democracies, he said that he contemplated a suspension of hostilities for a week or a fortnight for the purpose of negotiating a formal armistice. This period, might be prolonged, perhaps considerably, until a basis could be reached, in the first instance for an armistice and eventually for a general peace.

What he and his friends hoped for was a democratic, not an imperialistic, peace. They were against imperialism in all countries, Great Britain included. There would, therefore, be no such thing as secret diplomacy in the coming negotiations, whether for an armistice or a general peace. All proceedings would be published de die in diem.


https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/register/trotskys-idea-of-peace-9hxpq0vc9

december 7, 1917

Trotsky’s idea of peace

Trotsky, in the further course of my conversation with him (reported in The Times of yesterday) repudiated all idea of negotiating for the advantage of the Kaiser or of German Imperialism. In reply to the question whether the doctrine of “no annexations” could be applied to Turkey, who has long misgoverned alien races such as the Armenians and Arabs, Trotsky declared himself in favour of creating independent States, or a confederation of States. He approved of the settlement of Jews in Palestine, but objected to appropriations of territory there by foreign Powers. He refrained from replying when I observed that the British occupation of Baghdad had been necessary to prevent its seizure by another Power. He opposed the idea of a protectorate. He showed me a telegram stating that some of the Mongolian tribes had asked for the protection of the new Russian “Government”, and said that he considered it a humiliation for any nation to ask protection of another, but that he was ready to accord support. On the delicate question of the repatriation of Russians interned in England, Trotsky said that the People’s Commissioners, considering the attitude of the British Government not convenable in refraining from meeting the request, decided to refuse permission for British subjects to leave Russia.

When I was taking my leave, Trotsky took occasion to express his profound admiration for the British nation, its love of liberty and illustrious history, and, above all, its literature.
Trotsky, who is still a young man, was born in Southern Russia, and educated at Odessa University. In 1901 he was exiled to Siberia for political agitation. In the following year he escaped and took up his residence at Geneva, where he renewed his political activity. During the revolutionary period in 1904 he returned to Russia and was elected to the Workmen’s Committee. Eventually he became President of the Moderate Revolutionary Party. By degrees he associated himself with the extremists under Lenin, and organized with him the movement of July 3 in Petrograd. He was arrested, but subsequently released. He played a leading part in the last revolution, was elected President of the Soviet, and subsequently became People’s Commissioner for Foreign Affairs.

100 Years Ago - Murder of general Dukhonin

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/register/failure-of-a-great-plan-b27s9n55s

december 5, 1917

Failure of a great plan

There have in these last few days been times of anxiety, and all credit must be given to the Germans for the formidable plan of their attack. They massed their troops, consisting of not less than six divisions on each side of our salient, quickly and secretly. They had no need to proclaim their presence by a preliminary artillery bombardment, because we had in our new positions no defensive works to destroy or wire to cut. The enemy could attack when he pleased. He chose for the first attack on the weakest point on the south side of the salient, the early morning hour, when our daybreak patrols would have come back reporting all quiet. Then he struck with all his weight. Two hours later, he flung in a second attack, with no fewer men, in even denser masses, against the north.

On the north the attacks were checked, with appalling losses. On the south, by the first surprise the Germans made gains, but only a small portion of what they aimed at. After two days’ interval they again flung against the south side, on an even wider base than before, an attack no less heavy and no less determined. Though the first shot had missed, it was still not too late, by winning a great success, to attain some measure of the original plan. Our victory might still have been so far neutralized as to be made to bear some resemblance to defeat. That attack has made even less gain than the first, and its cost has been as heavy. The Germans came on in dense waves, such as we never dream of using, over open ground, without concealment, and they paid a terrible price.
One gets astounding pictures of the fighting from men who were in it through those amazing hours of strain. One hears of machine-gunners working their guns till they got too hot and jammed, or till all the ammunition was used up, and then seizing rifles and turning in to shoot, shoot, shoot, till the rifles, too, were hot. One hears of men firing steadily hour after hour, using three or four rifles in the course of the day, till dusk came on and the strain relaxed, and they put their heads down on their rifle-butts and sobbed. One hears of field guns firing as fast as they could at point-blank range into the masses as they came on, until wave after wave of the enemy melted and disappeared.

Charles Saatchi's Great Masterpieces: Bruegel's Dutch Proverbs turned clichés into high art

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/art/artists/charles-saatchis-great-masterpieces-bruegels-dutch-proverbs/

Despite portraits being a stalwart of Dutch and Flemish art in the 16th century, and a lucrative market for artists, Pieter Bruegel never painted any. He specialised in genre paintings portraying the lives of peasants – not a common subject matter at the time.
But humanist ideals were beginning to influence artists and scholars, and Italy was coming to the end of its High Renaissance of art and culture, making Bruegel an innovative pioneer in the Dutch Golden Age. He was to become increasingly influential.
He is sometimes referred to as “Peasant Bruegel”, in an attempt to distinguish him from the other painters in his family, including his remarkably gifted son, Pieter Bruegel the Younger. The epithet came about because it was believed that he must have come from humble origins, due to his emphasis on highlighting the routine working days of the lowly. But in more recent years, scholars have noted the intellectual sophistication of his work and thinking, and believe that he was a highly educated member of the gentry.
After his training, Bruegel travelled to Italy to see the works of the Italian masters. In 1555 he returned to Antwerp, working as a successful print designer for the main publisher at the time. It was only later in life that he concentrated purely on painting, and all of his great masterpieces were produced in little more than a decade. By then, his pictures had become much sought after by wealthy patrons and collectors.
In 1559 Bruegel painted one of his most exquisite works, the richly detailed and mesmerising Netherlandish Proverbs, which depicts literal visual representations of more than 90 Dutch sayings. Variants of a large number of the proverbs Bruegel illustrated are still used in modern Flemish, French, English and Dutch. To the people of 16th-century Flanders, proverbs were a familiar part of their vocabulary, and as the subject of an artwork, would have been recognisable as well as entertaining.

This Week in History - The Battle of Leuthen (4 December)

https://ospreypublishing.com/thisweekhistory/

 

 

 

 

By the autumn of 1757 Frederick the Great was beset by enemies on all sides. The French had invaded allied territory, an Austrian army 110,000-strong had marched into Silesia and even the Russians had moved against him. Then within a month Frederick transformed his fortunes. At Rossbach on 5 November he smashed the Franco-Imperial army in barely one-and-a-half hours. Force-marching to Silesia he won perhaps his greatest victory exactly a month later, crushing the Austrian army at Leuthen.

Further reading
Campaign 113: Rossbach and Leuthen 1757 examines these two battles and Essential Histories 6: The Seven Years' War reviews the grand strategies of the combatants and examines the differing styles of warfare used in the many campaigns.